FREE ESSAY ON EGYPTIAN RELIGOUS REFORMS

EGYPTIAN RELIGOUS REFORMS

Early Egyptian Religious Beliefs and Akhenaten's Reforms
During the New Kingdom of Egypt (from 1552 through 1069 B.C.), there came a sweeping
change in the religious structure of the ancient Egyptian civilization. The Hymn to the
Aten was created by Amenhotep IV, who ruled from 1369 to 1353 B.C., and began a move
toward a monotheist culture instead of the polytheist religion which Egypt had
experienced for the many hundreds of years prior to the introduction of this new idea.
There was much that was different from the old views in The Hymn to the Aten, and it
offered a new outlook on the Egyptian ways of life by providing a complete break with the
traditions which Egypt held to with great respect. Yet at the same time, there were many
commonalties between these new ideas and the old views of the Egyptian world. Although
through the duration of his reign, Amenhotep IV introduced a great many changes to the
Egyptian religion along with The Hymn, none of these reforms outlived their creator,
mostly due to the massive forces placed on his successor, Tutankhamen, to renounce these
new reforms. However, the significance of Amenhotep IV, or Akhenaten as he later changed
his name to, is found in The Hymn. The Hymn itself can be looked at as a contradiction of
ideas; it must be looked at in relation to both the Old Kingdom's belief of steadfast and
static values, as well as in regards to the changes of the Middle Kingdom, which saw
unprecedented expansionistic and individualistic oriented reforms. In this paper I plan
to discuss the evolvement of Egyptian Religious Beliefs throughout the Old, 
Middle, and New Kingdoms and analyze why Amenhotep IV may have brought about such
religious reforms.
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (from 2700 to 2200 B.C.), saw the commencement of many of the
rigid, formal beliefs of the Egyptian civilization, both in regards to their religious
and political beliefs, as they were very closely intertwined. ... There was a determined
attempt to impose order on the multitude of gods and religious beliefs that had existed
since predynastic times... and the sun-god Re became the supreme royal god, with the king
taking the title of Son of Re (David 155). The Egyptians overall believed that nature was
an incorruptible entity and that to reach a state of human perfection in the afterlife,
they too would have to change from their corruptible human shells to mimic the
incorruptibility of nature. Upper and Lower Egypt were united for the first time under
one ruler, however, this would come to an end around 2200 B.C.. In much of the Egyptian
hieroglyphs, the Pharaoh was often depicted as almost larger than life, with great power
and much of Egyptian art is a celebration of his accomplishments. The formation of a
royal absolutism occurred during this period, with the Pharaoh and a small-centralized
administration, composed mainly of royal kin and relatives, overseeing all aspects of
Egyptian life. The Pharaoh was looked at as a living god among the Egyptian people, who
assured the success of Egypt as well as its peace. The Pharaoh belonged both to the world
of the gods and the world of men, and he was seen as a bridge between them. Some of the
local deities represented various aspects of nature, such as the earth and the sky, or
the Nile and it's gifts of fertility. So the king, living in their midst, could bring the
Egyptians into a harmonious relationship with their divinities and with the forces of
nature upon which their whole existence depended (Hawkes 43).
In regard to the religious structure of the Old Kingdom, there was a polytheistic view of
the world, as in Mesopotamia. However, unlike the Mesopotamian religion, the Egyptians
worked for their kings as opposed to working for their gods. The complex concept of the
afterlife was also developed during this period. The Great Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom
built great pyramids to forever protect their remains after death. It was believed that
the king (solely) could spend eternity traveling with the gods... However, in order to
obtain eternal sustenance, it was also essential that the king could return to earth at
will; here, through his preserved body, his spirit imbibes the essence of food and drink
offerings, which were continually brought to his burial complex (David 126). These
political and religious views were believed to be sacred and intended to be adhered to
without change, following the Egyptian's view of nature as an unchanging constant, and a
static phenomenon. 
After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, there came the First Intermediate Period during
which the United Egypt separated. It became a time of turmoil and disaster. The Pharoah
was over thrown and society simply collapsed resulting in anarchy throughout Egypt.
Famine and disease were widespread and the rich were equal to the poor. "Since the
Kingship was discredited, individuals now demanded their own eternity. Tombs were
equipped in provincial districts for the local rulers, but gradually, democratization of
beliefs came to affect all levels of society, and even the poorest classes hoped to
achieve individual immortality" (David 132). Order was eventually restored and Egypt
entered into a great period of prosperity. This was the Middle Kingdom. Though Egypt was
separated, both Upper and Lower Egypt still had a shared religion, just different views
as to whom the heroes and villains were in their mythology. 
The Middle Kingdom, which occurred between 2040 and 1674 B.C., saw the re-emergence of a
united Egypt. The Pharaohs of this period were once again the center of the kingdom, and
the military might of Egypt was far greater than it been in previous centuries. However,
the Pharaoh was not as great a political power as he had been in the Old Kingdom, as the
nobles had begun to gain a sense of greater independence from the Pharaoh, in respect to
the idea that they needed him to assure themselves a place in the afterlife. They
believed that they could obtain eternity themselves by using symbols of the monarchy from
the Old Kingdom as well as magical spells, which they collected from the Pyramid Texts.
The nobles had their own large tombs, but they were no longer constructed near the King's
pyramid but were scattered more independently across the necropolis, and the high quality
of the wall-decoration in these tombs indicated their owner's importance (David 129). The
political structure of the Middle Kingdom was also changing from that of the Old Kingdom.
In the past, the government was run by only the immediate family of the Pharaoh, in the
Middle Kingdom however, ...he began to marry into the wealthy but non-royal nobility,
destroying the fictional divinity of the royal line (David 131).
Around 1674 B.C., the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt separated once again. This
Second Intermediate Period saw the Hyksos, Semitic invaders from Palestine, come and
overtake the Egyptian ruling class. These peoples were expelled from Egypt around 1553
B.C., which gave rise to the New Kingdom of Egypt. The capital was moved to Thebes and
these rulers attributed their ascendancy over the Hyksos to the powerful support of their
local god; Amun. ...The kings eventually associated him with the old northern sun-god Re,
creating the all new powerful deity Amen-Re (David 147). Also at this time, there began a
new imperialistic movement within the Egyptian culture, and we see several crusades into
Asia and the Mid-East during this time frame. Egypt ruled in Asia for about a century or
so, but lost it due to the lack of interest on the part of the royal court in the
contents of its Asian subjects. Though for the most part, the Egyptian religion remained
as it had in the previous kingdoms during the first part of the New Kingdom. Amenhotep
IV, or Akhenaten as he later changed his name to, brought about many religious reforms.
Amenhotep IV began a series of reforms to ensure the Pharaoh's status as a living god
among the people, as opposed to a simple agent of the sun-god Amen-Re, as the priests of
the royal court were beginning to assert a more powerful and independent role. Assisted
by the royal family, Amenhotep IV commenced on a series of religious reforms, which would
help him regain the power lost to the priests. He worshiped Aten, the radiant god of the
sun disk. Why this particular god Aten was chosen may never be known, But Amenhotep IV
apparently so inspired by his faith that he wrote "The Hymn to the Aten" in his praise.
At first he tolerated worship of other gods along with Aten, but eventually he chiseled
out the name of Amen-Re from anything which beared the name, and closed the temples of
the other gods. The Pharaoh and his family were to worship Aten, while the remainder of
the populace was to worship the Pharaoh. Amenhotep then moved the capital of Egypt from
Thebes, which was primarily centered on Amen-Re, to a new location called Akhenaten, now
modern day Armana, to further separate from previous beliefs. Amenhotep IV also changed
his name to Akhenaten, which translates to It pleases Aten. Akhenaten also replaced his
advisors with new men, instead of the Amen serving priests. These changes showed a move
toward a more monotheist view of the Egyptian world, a view that had never been observed
before. Although each period and line of kings favored a supreme state-god, there had
always been toleration of the multitude of deities in Egypt's pantheon (David 155). This
new religion saw the worship of Aten as the principal hero in Egyptian religion, with
gods like Amon as enemies. These reforms however, would be short-lived, and the only
enduring sign of this Pharaoh's significance is in the Hymns, which were written to the
new god Aten.
In "The Hymn", Aten is proclaimed to be the sole god, and responsible for all of
creation. "O unique god, who has no second to him! You have created the earth according
to your desire, while you were alone, With men, cattle, and wild beasts, all that is upon
earth and goes upon feet, and all that soars above and flies with its wings" (Akhenaten
lines 60-65). "The Hymn" also proclaims the pharaoh as the god's sole representative on
earth, and virtually interchangeable with one another. "When you rise you make all to
flourish for the King, you who made up the foundations of the earth. You who rise them up
for your son, he who came forth from your body, ..." (Akhenaten lines 122-125). The
writing is very beautiful and was inscribed on walls in various tombs. 
Though much of what Akhenaten was proposing was a drastic change from the traditional
beliefs of Egyptian religion, there were some aspects of these reforms shown in The Hymn
to the Aten that were not that far a cry from much of what was taught and believed in the
past. As with the gods of the past, Aten was visible, as in that he could be presented in
a painting to the people who worshipped him. This new god, Aten, was allowed to be
pictured in the elaborate murals on tomb walls and so on, much the same as the old gods
of the prior religion were. Aten was also the embodiment of the sun, as Amon-Re was in
the old religion, and was worshipped much the same as Amon-Re was prior to Akhenaten's
condemnation of him. Aten was also seen as "The Creator of all that was Existing", which
also held to the traditional belief that the sun god was the chief creator of the
universe. It was also believed in this new religion as in the old one, that the Pharaoh
was the next of kin to the sun god, even though the sun god had changed from Re to Aten.
It was also believed that the sun god was raised above the other gods, while being able
to have his presence encompass everything. None of these ideas were new to the Egyptian
people, as they were exhibited in the old religion; however there was much in this new
theology that was extremely different from the traditions of the old.
The Hymn to the Aten introduced a great many new concepts to the religion of the Egyptian
people. The nature of Aten as the creator is different from previous religious beliefs.
Aten was said to have created the world out of his own will to do so, not out of
necessity. Also, we see Aten being distinguished from nature, as well as seeing that
nature is not a separate being in the theological order of things. Nature is now believed
to be ordered under Aten, with no separate, sovereign being of its own. The Nile is no
longer believed to be the embodiment of a god, but a creation of the god, Aten. These two
views are the result of the shift toward the monotheist belief that Aten is the sole god
in the cosmos, worshipped by the Pharaoh and his family, who are in turn worshipped by
the Egyptian people. Aten is now seen as a universal god, who is worshipped by everyone
on earth, just in forms and fashions differing from those of the Egyptians; not as a god
who was specific to the Egyptian people. 
Though this hymn offers much that is vastly different from the old beliefs in Egyptian
culture, it is also an effort to revitalize the old beliefs. The Hymn is intending to
bring the Pharaoh back into the center of Egyptian religion, politics and culture. It is
an attempt to revive and reestablish the unquestionable divinity of the Pharaoh. However,
it is going about it by completely severing ties with the old traditions of Egyptian
religion. The Aten had no moral philosophy or attractive mythology which could inspire
the general worshipper (David 157). The Hymn also creates a paradoxical relationship
between the two theological views as expressed in Egyptian culture. On one hand, there is
the new tendency toward a monotheistic religion, with Aten as the sole god, and no other
gods governing nature, etc. On the other hand, there are the old views on religion being
expressed; the Pharaoh was worshipped by the people of Egypt as a god, and he in turn is
worshipping the god Aten; thus, there is more than one god.
These new religious views also appeared to help influence a major break in the
traditional art of the time. Rather than producing idealized portraits as had been done
for hundreds of years prior, Akhenaten encouraged artists to represent him in informal
situations - basking in Aten's benevolent rays. With his blessing, the artists portrayed
Akhenaten not as a conqueror, riding in a war chariot and trampling his enemies, but as a
family man, relaxing with Nefertiti, his queen, and his daughters.
The Hymn to the Aten, though it offered new ideas on Egyptian religion, was an attempt by
a ruler who enjoyed the idea of a divine title to regain what his predecessors had. The
religious reforms brought about by Akhenaten were intended to restore the position of the
Pharaoh to the level of absolute rule which had once been held due to belief that the
Pharaoh was the personification of the gods. This however was not to be, as the priests
which Akhenaten had fought against in his attempt to redefine the Pharaoh's divinity
would take advantage of the weakness of Akhenaten's successor, Tutankhamen. Tutankhamen's
immaturity enabled the courtiers and officials to direct political and religious
events... The court moved back to Thebes, and the royal couple changed their names to
Tutankhamen, demonstrating their renewed allegiance to Amen-Re. The king restored the old
temples of the many gods, and reinstated the priesthoods (David 158). The reforms, which
Akhenaten brought to return the power once held by the Pharaoh in the Old Kingdom, were
unable to be understood. The people who Akhenaten had to ensure comprehension of his
reasoning did not, for they no longer were connected to the old order which he was trying
to reestablish.
Bibliography
Aldred, Cyril. Akhenaten - King of Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 1998.
Casson, Lionel. Ancient Egypt. New York: Time Inc, 1965.
David, Rosalie. Discovering Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1993.
Hawkes, Jacquetta. Pharaohs of Egypt. New York: American Heritage Publishing, 1965.
Matthews, Roy T., and F. Dewitt Platt. Readings in the Western Humanities. Third Edition.

Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing, 1992 
Montet, Pierre. Lives of the Pharaohs. Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1968.
Redford, Donald. Akhenaten - The Heretic King. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1984.
Strouhal, Eugen. Life of the Ancient Egyptians. London: Opus Publishing, 1992.
Bibliography
Aldred, Cyril. Akhenaten - King of Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson, 1998.
Casson, Lionel. Ancient Egypt. New York: Time Inc, 1965.
David, Rosalie. Discovering Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1993.
Hawkes, Jacquetta. Pharaohs of Egypt. New York: American Heritage Publishing, 1965.
Matthews, Roy T., and F. Dewitt Platt. Readings in the Western Humanities. Third Edition.

Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing, 1992 
Montet, Pierre. Lives of the Pharaohs. Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1968.
Redford, Donald. Akhenaten - The Heretic King. Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1984.
Strouhal, Eugen. Life of the Ancient Egyptians. London: Opus Publishing, 1992.