FREE ESSAY ON EUROPEANS IN PURSUIT OF CAPITALISM IN NEW ENGLAND

EUROPEANS IN PURSUIT OF CAPITALISM IN NEW ENGLAND

Europeans in Pursuit of Capitalism in New England
Indian and European people had many cultural differences causing both cultures to clash.
The two cultures also had different beliefs in terms of land usage and commodities. The
European arrival had an enormous impact on the ecosystem, which as well affected the
lives of the Indians. The Indians were used to being mobile in terms of their way of
living as opposed to the European colonists, they were used to settling in one place and
were also very materialistic. On the other hand, the Indians only possessed what they
needed and did not have luxuries like the colonists.
The Indians of New England did not believe in land ownership because they moved from one
location to another, depending on seasonal changes. The Indians were not greedy over the
land; they just planted crops and hunted animals for survival. Cronon points out that
"Indian villages moved from habitat to habitat to find maximum abundance through minimal
work, and so reduce their impact on the land, the English believed in and required
permanent settlements." (p.53) Once the land in which they cultivated their crops lost
its fertility they migrated to another location seeking land with fertile soil because
the Indians wouldn't overwhelm the land. New England had an abundance of natural
resources such as timber, animals, crops, water, and fish. Thus, they did not misuse or
waste their resources; they used everything wisely. They hunted only as needed or
depending on how well the hunting season went, but they never accumulated the animals.
Indians traded animal furs for knives, hooks, and other metal goods with the Europeans. 
European colonists' arrival had a tremendous impact on the ecology of New England. When
the Europeans arrived to New England they saw the abundance of natural resources that
there was and began exaggerating when reporting back to their people, they would say that
there was an infinite amount of resources to encourage more people to come to New
England. Europeans were amazed by the abundance that there was and began overwhelming the
land and hunting in excess to their needs, and destroying the forests for agricultural
use. Europeans also believed that if they stayed in a piece of land for a certain amount
of time they became the owners of it and since the Indians depended much on mobility the
Europeans began to take over the land. The colonists created fences as borders between
landscapes modernizing the land with industrialism. Cronon also implies that, "There are
problems with animals eating crops which is solved partly by fences." They also used
fences to prevent animals from trespassing to another owner's land. 
Cronon's implications are that "by integrating New England ecosystems an ultimately
global capitalist economy, colonists and Indians together began a dynamic change which
had in no way ended by the 1800s. We live their legacy today." (p. 170) By this Cronon
implies that the people (no matter what group) have changed and modernized the land in
which we live in. Also, no matter in what era we are in, there will always be changes,
but these changes of industrialism have brought us many consequences such as: diseases,
air pollution, water pollution, ozone layer depletion, global warming, and over-developed
populations in certain areas. These consequences have been of result from the numerous
alterations done to the land.
It is for a fact that the European people got what they wanted, a capitalistic and
industrialized economy. But the accomplishments of having capitalism have caused much
chaos and destruction to this land. There has been so much over usage and abuse to the
resources we have that they are now scarce and will soon be very limited. We must be
careful and wise of how we use our resources because of the alterations that we have made
to the land throughout the years have caused severe damage to its ecosystem. Thus, we
must do something about these things or we will be nothing left of the land in 100 years;
nothing lasts forever!


  
    
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Ozone Layer Depletion
The Potential Effects of a Depleted Ozone Layer  And God said, let there be light and
there was light and then God saw the light, that it was good  ( Genesis 1: 3-4 ).
Undoubtedly, light is good. Without light man could not survive. Light is the ultimate
cosmic force in this universe allowing man to progress and flourish. In the form of heat,
light from the sun warms the Earth. Light, also, is the single most important factor
influencing the growth and development of plants. Photosynthesis, a process by which
plants incorporate light from the sun, allow plants to botanically grow and survive.
Certain forms of light are harmful and thus can be said are 'bad'. A natural umbrella
called the ozone layer protects the Earth and its inhabitants by screening out this
harmful light. For  millions of years ozone has been protecting the earth  by absorbing
ultraviolet or bad radiation from the sun ( Rowland, 1992, p.66 ). This natural umbrella
protecting mankind has recently suffered the effects of industrialized society. This 
ozone shield is dissipating  and the cause is laid primarily to man - made chemicals (
Bowermaster et al, 1990, p.27 ). If enough of these man - made chemicals are released, 
the ozone layer would be weakened to such an extent that it does not filter out the sun's
invisible and dangerous ultraviolet rays  ( Jones, 1992, p.36 ). Such a scenario would
drastically alter society and the environment. Ozone depletion has been described as 
potential catastrophe  and  a planetary time - bomb  ( Way, 1988, p.9 ). The four main
areas affected by a depleted ozone layer and thus by the corresponding increase in
harmful ultraviolet radiation are agriculture, wildlife, the environment, and human
health. A depleted ozone layer has a profoundly negative and potentially devastating
effect on humanity and its surroundings. From an agricultural perspective, a diminished
ozone layer poses great risks. Since man's evolution from 'man the hunter and gatherer'
to 'man the food producer' , mankind has grown ever more dependent on his surroundings.
In the case of food production man relies greatly on these surroundings. The land on
which man attempts to grow food for himself, and certainly for others as well, has
sufficed for thousands of years. The crops grown on his land have provided thousands with
food to eat in the ancient world, millions with food to eat in the medieval world, and
billions with food to eat in the present world. Regrettably, there have always been times
of hunger and shortages. More frighteningly, in the present world man is confronted with
a population boom which is burgeoning near the six billion mark. It is now more important
than ever to protect, maintain, and hopefully increase the amount of food grown. One of
the drawbacks of industrialization has been the significant depletion of the ozone layer.
This depletion could have an incredibly devastating impact on the world and more
specifically agriculture. In general,  plants are quite sensitive and fragile when
confronted with ultraviolet increases  ( Zimmer, 1993, p.28 ). Words such as sensitivity
and fragility only add to the urgency of the possible agricultural holocaust. One
agricultural scientist remarked,  soybeans, tomatoes, tobacco, potatoes, corn, beans, and
wheat are all especially sensitive to UV light  ( Jones, 1992, p.39 ). Since most of the
mentioned crops are considered cash crops the economic aspect of lower crop yields could
also spell disaster. Food supplies are surely in jeopardy when taking in to account that 
more than two - thirds of the plant species - mainly crops - tested for their reaction to
ultraviolet light have been found to be damaged by it  ( Lean et al, 1990, p.97 ). An
increase in ultraviolet light radiating towards plants accelerates the pace at which man
must decide what to do with the dilemma of a booming and more importantly hungry
population. Conceedingly, plants, as any element of life, have been known to adapt to
contemporary and dangerous changes in its surroundings but it cannot be dismissed that 
UV radiation can also mutate the genes of plants  which are the fundamental building
blocks of all life ( Bowermaster et al, 1990, p.44 ). Interference with the foundations
of life can also lead to calamity and more importantly a yet foreseen and unknown
calamity. In 1988, then U.S. Interior secretary Donald Hoedel  proposed coping with ozone
depletion by simply wearing sunglasses and hats  but what Hoedel doesn't understand is
that plants lack the ability to wear such human - like possessions ( Bowermaster et al,
1990, p.31 ). With an ever - increasing population it is critical to act or react to the
ozone depletion saga in mankind's midst. More importantly there are and foreseeably will
be even more heralded environmental issues which need to be addressed. The ozone
depletion story can seen as a warning sign to humanity exposing the fact that the earth
can only endure a certain amount of hardship before it will surrender to the onslaught of
industrial might. One author explains the gravity of the situation by pointing out, 
There's only one atmosphere and once that is gone who knows  ( Cox, 1994, p.546 ).
Agriculturally, a depletion in the ozone layer could lead to economic and societal ruin
for many. In addition to having a profound potential effect on agriculture, a depleted
ozone layer affects wildlife in the same indiscriminate manner. Since ozone depletion
leads to increases in harmful UV light, it comes as no surprise that this 'bad' light
would affect the various forms of life on Earth other than plants. Marine life is
currently the most affected by increases in UV light associated with ozone depletion. 
There has been speculation that this UV could cause a population collapse in the marine
food chain, especially in phytoplankton  ( Zimmer, 1993, p.28 ). Phytoplankton, are free
floating aquatic plants which  are the mainstay of the oceanic food chain  ( Lemonick,
1992, p.43 ). Concerning phytoplankton,  it has been shown through laboratory experiments
that UV-A and UV-B do indeed inhibit phytoplankton photosynthesis  ( Zimmer, 1993, p.28
). Since phytoplankton occupy such a strategic position in the aquatic food chain,
interference with phytoplanktic photosynthesis affects the growth, development, and
reproductive aspects of all marine life. Scientists agree that  right now, the lowest
levels of life are being hit hardest  by the increase in ultraviolet light ( Rowland,
1992, p.36 ). If the lowest levels of marine life, being phytoplankton, are oppressed by
increases in UV light, species relying on the phytoplankton for sustenance cannot be far
behind in suffering the effects of a ravaged food chain. One of the species which relies
on the phytoplankton is krill which are shrimplike - vegetarians of the seas which in
turn are a principle source of sustenance for whales and the like. If krill were to be
harvested as a food resource for mankind it has been said that,  a krill harvest would
provide us with the same amount of food as 10% of the global annual fish catch  (
Boisseau, 1987, p.4 ). Clearly, if the location of krill were more available to man, than
being mostly confined to polar water regions, another principal food resource could be
added to man's long list of them. Another important feature involved in a decline in
phytoplankton numbers and productivity is the fact that  phytoplankton helps produce and
recycle the world's oxygen supply  ( Bowermaster et al, 1990, p.40 ). An increase in
ultraviolet light can thus endanger an entire ecosystem without necessarily killing off
the masses. By altering the respiratory balance in an ecosystem a variety of species
would be affected. Furthermore, the same oxygen recycled by phytoplankton is breathed by
all animals and man himself thus adding to the importance of the threatened oceanic food
chain. A weakened ozone umbrella could also have a tremendous impact on wildlife.
Moreover, in support of devastating impact on the crops and animals, a diminished ozone
layer has been associated with environmental damage and concern. The potential effect on
the earth's climate systems and weather is another negative aspect joined at the hip with
a weakened ozone shield. The ozone layer is located in the stratosphere  15 - 50 km above
the earth's surface  and plays a key role in the development of weather patterns (
Boisseau, 1987, p.7 ).  When stratospheric ozone intercepts UV light, heat is generated.
This heat helps create stratospheric winds, the driving force behind weather patterns  (
Lemonick, 1992, p.42 ). By changing the amount of ozone in the atmosphere, through man -
made chemical interference, the regular wind patterns are affected. Ultimately,  a
diminished ozone layer will help heat up the atmosphere, adding to the threat of global
warming  ( Bowermaster, 1990, p.33 ). Convincingly, climatologists have noted that, 
Weather patterns have already begun to change over Antarctica  ( Lemonick, 1992, p.42 ). 
Virtually all the CFCs and halons that have ever been released are still in the
atmosphere  ( Jones, 1992, p.39 ). This means that all the potent ozone destroyers which
indirectly cause an increase in harmful ultraviolet light are still in the atmosphere
accomplishing their chemically destructive tasks. Moreover, this destructive process will
continue in the sky for the CFC's and halon's  atmospheric lifetime of between 70 and 150
years  ( Brune et al, 1992, p.38 ). The changing weather patterns and global warming will
continue to exist as long as this ozone depletion is still occurring. Ozone replenishes
itself naturally but  it will take the entire 21st century to return to pre - CFC levels 
( Rowland, 1992, p.67 ). Ozone destruction has left an indelible mark on the atmosphere
and will continue to do so for at least another century. The depletion of the ozone layer
has a potential catastrophic effect towards the environment. Furthermore, a diminished
ozone layer provides man with another of his already many viable health concerns. Man
continually strives to better his health and tries desperately to stave off his self -
acknowledged mortality. One of the many health concerns brought to light in wake of the
ozone depletion story is cataracts. Cataracts is a medical condition in which the lens of
the eye deteriorates causing blurriness and even blindness. Statistics show that  if the
ozone layer is depleted by 1%, 100, 000 people worldwide would be blinded  ( Brune et al,
1992, p.39 ). In addition to higher rates of cataracts, rates of skin cancer have also
been linked to increased ultraviolet light in recent years.  On a population wide - basis
the connection between ultraviolet exposure and an increased risk of skin cancer have
been established beyond question  ( Cox, 1994, p.546 ). Admittedly, some of the recent
increases in skin cancer rates can be attributed to the growth in popularity and
fascination with tanning and sun bathing but another, and more convincing statistic
states,  In the 1930s, Canadians had one chance in 3500 of getting melanoma. In the
1990's, the chance is one in 100.  ( Brune et al, 1992, p.38 ) Most forms of skin cancer
are not serious, but  melanoma is fatal but in only 20 percent of the cases.  ( Rowland,
1992, p.66 ) One doctor simplifies the matter by noting,  Increased UV radiation has a
negative effect on all biology.  ( Boisseau, 1988, p.8 ) All biology having been
pertained to all life without consequence to size, type, or location. Another negative
effect of increased ultraviolet radiation is its link to immunological drawbacks.
According to the World Resources Institute,  A diminished ozone layer may also make
people more vulnerable to a variety of infectious diseases like malaria  ( Bowermaster et
al, 1990, p.31 ). Scientists agree that they  already know that ultraviolet light can
impair immunity to infectious diseases in animals  ( Lemonick, 1992, p.41 ). Since it has
been determined that immuno - effects have occurred in animals it cannot be preposterous
to assume a similar effect can be set upon humanity which is genetically and
historically, according to Darwinists, related to the animal kingdom. Immunological
processes are carried out at the cellular level just as any other life processes
supporting the notion that  ultraviolet light carries enough energy to damage DNA and
thus disrupt the working of the cells  ( Lemonick, 1989, p.41 ). Furthermore, a U.N.
research team stated increases in ultraviolet light  speed up the onset of the AIDS virus
 ( Brune et al, 1992, p.32 ). Ultraviolet light reduces immune efficiency by  suppressing
the production of antibodies, helping cancers to be established and grow and increasing
the susceptibility to herpes and leishmaniasis  ( Lean et al, 1990, p.97 ). A suppressed
immune system is just one more of many health concerns linked conclusively to a depleted
ozone layer and the resultant UV increases. The medical ramifications of increased UV
light is another effect linked to the ecological 'lit fuse' we call ozone depletion.
Ozone layer depletion possesses a potentially catastrophic cargo of harmful ultraviolet
light concerning mankind and the planet Earth. Agriculture, wildlife, the environment and
human health are all aspects of the planet Earth which are affected by a dramatic loss in
atmospheric ozone stability. In the name of progress and societal advancement, mankind
has released millions of tonnes of potent ozone destroyers in the last sixty years. The
immediate scientific result of a depleted ozone layer is an increase in the amount of
harmful ultraviolet light which reaches the Earth's surface. Historically, mankind has
endured atrocity, calamity, and ferocity. In terms of the environment, it too has
endured. Environmental endurance is tested regularly at the benefits of society. What
makes man man is his ability to survive and repair the damage he has done. Al Gore
defined man's relationship with the sky in posing the frightening question,  What will it
do to our children's outlook on life if we have to teach them to be afraid to look up?  (
Lemonick, 1992, p.40 ). If the ozone layer can be freed from the clutches of chemical
villainy, only then can it be truly said once again  let there be light  and not worry
about the consequences Works Cited Boisseau, Peter R.  The Mysterious Threat.  Probe
Post, Spring 1987, 10: 1-9. Bowermaster, Jon, and Will Steger, eds. Saving the Earth. New
York City: Alfred A. Knopf Inc., 1990. Brune, Nick, and Fisher, Bob, eds. Disappearing
Ozone: Danger in the Sun? Toronto: Canadian Broadcating Corporation, 1992. Cox, Gary. 
The Ozone Hole.  Consumer Reports Aug. 1994: 546. Jones, David.  Ozone.  Earthkeeper
Oct./ Nov. 1992: 36 - 46. Lean, Geoffrey, Don Hinrichsen, and Adam Markham, eds. Atlas of
the Environment. New York City: Prentice Hall Press Inc., 1990. Lemonick, Michael D. 
Deadly Danger in a Spray Can.  Time 2 Jan. 1989: 41. Lemonick, Michael D.  The Ozone
Vanishes.  Time 17 Feb. 1992: 40 - 44. Rowland, F. Sherwood.  Northern Exposure.  People
20 Apr. 1992: 66 - 68. Way, David.  Twilight on the Ozone.  Probe Post, Winter 1988, 10:
3- 6. Zimmer, Carl.  Son of Ozone Hole.  Nature Oct. 1993: 28 - 30.