FREE ESSAY ON PENGUINS

PENGUINS

The signature Species of the Southern Hemisphere (Antarctica) - the mascot if you will -
is the penguin. There are not one and no fewer than seventeen species of penguins.
Penguins are flightless birds in which several factors are contributing to the reduction
of the penguin population. These contributing factors are both man-made and naturally
occurring.
"The origin of the word "penguin" has been the subject of debate for a long period of
time. Researchers and historians' theories range from reference to the amount of fat
(penguigo in Spanish and pinguis in Latin) penguins possess to the claim that the word
was derived from two Welsh words meaning 'white head'." (Sparks and Soper, 1987) Penguins
are comical and funny birds. Blue/black on the upper half of their body and white on the
lower half, they look as though they are all dressed up for a formal dinner or show but
have no place to go! Penguins are flightless birds, which have adapted to living in the
cooler waters of the Southern Hemisphere. They generally live on islands and remote
continental regions that are free of land predators. Their inability to fly has been
detrimental to their survival on land. Some species of penguins spend as much as 75% of
their lives in the ocean, yet they all breed on land or sea ice attached to land. The
seventeen species found today are thought to have evolved from flying birds more than
forty million years ago. To date, the discovery of all penguin fossil fragments has been
limited to the Southern Hemisphere. "Records show that prehistoric penguins were found
within the range of present-day penguins." (Sparks and Soper, 1987)
All penguins have a very similar torpedo-shaped body form, which is conducive for
swimming. They have a large head and a short neck with an elongated body. Penguin species
vary greatly in size. For example, the Emperor penguin is the largest of the penguin
species, standing 3.7 feet and weighing between sixty and ninety pounds. The smallest
penguin in the species is the Fairy penguin, standing only sixteen inches and weighs less
than 3 pounds. Penguin's wings are highly modified to form a stiff paddle-like flipper
used for swimming. "Each flipper is covered with short, scale like feathers. The long
wing feathers typical of most birds would be too flexible for swimming through water."
(Sparks and Soper, 1987) A penguin's tail is short and wedged shaped with fourteen to
eighteen stiff tail feathers. The legs and webbed feet with visible claws on a penguin
are set back on the body so that when on land, the penguin is able to stand. "Penguins
walk with short steps or hops, sometimes using their bills or tails to assist themselves
on steep climbs." (del Hoyo, et al., 1992) When in the ocean swimming, penguins use their
feet and short stubby tail as a rudder to guide them through the water. Penguin's bones
are solid and heavy which help them to remain submerged to reduce the energy that they
need for diving.
Penguins are able to withstand the extreme cold because of the insulation provided by
their feathers. Feathers are highly specialized, broad and closely spaced helping to keep
water away from the penguin's body. Penguins have more feathers than most birds, having
about seventy feathers per square inch on their body. Most penguin species goes through
one complete molting cycle per year, which usually happens after breeding season. "The
exception to this is the Galapagos penguin which annually go through 2 molts." (del Hoyo,
et al., 1992) For penguins, molting is a very important process because feathers wear out
when penguins come in contact with each other, as well as with the ground and water. The
molting period varies between one species to another. Usually the time period is anywhere
from thirteen to thirty-four days.
Regular preening of the feathers is essential as penguins obtain oil from their tails to
coat their feathers for waterproofing. Penguins in warmer temperate zones have a thinner
plumage of feathers and fat layer than their counterparts of the polar species. To keep
warm in near freezing waters, penguins have a highly developed heat exchanged system of
blood vessels in the flippers and legs which helps the heat loss at the core of the body.
To avoid heat loss in a penguin's body, the penguin has 2 internal temperatures. A
penguin has a normal body temperature and a temperature of the environment close to the
limbs of the body. Tropical penguins can overheat very easily; so in order for them to
lose the body heat, they usually use their flippers to get rid of excess heat. They also
have bigger flippers than their polar penguin ancestors. 
Penguins communicate with each other by different ritual behaviors such as head and
flipper waving, calling, bowing, gesturing and preening. Penguins communicate by
"displays" or vocalization and performing physical behavior. "They use many vocal and
visual displays to communicate nesting and territories along with mating information.
They also use displays in partner and chick recognition, and defense of intruders."
(Sparks and Soper, 1987) Territorial disputes can lead to aggressive postures such as
stares, pointing and even charging each other. Also during courtship and mating, other
rituals are included which are called ecstatic displays. In these particular displays, an
unattached male penguin will pump his chest several times, stretch his head upwards and
move his flippers about away from his body. During this display, the male penguin also
emits a loud harsh sound. In doing this, other male penguins in the colony begin to
exhibit the same behavior which in turn begins the breeding cycle within the colony. When
breeding occurs, one is unable to distinguish male and female penguins because they are
not sexually dimorphic. There is one particular penguin that one can be told apart called
the Crested penguin. Other ways of telling which penguin is male or female is that males
are usually more robust and have larger bills. Also during mating season, female penguins
are identifiable by muddy footprints left behind by males during mating activity.
Males and female penguins may take from 3 to 8 years before they reach sexual maturity.
With some smaller species of penguins, breeding can occur between 3 and 4 years; but with
larger penguins, breeding does not occur until much later in life, and then some do not
breed until the eighth year. The King penguin has the longest breeding cycle of all of
the penguin species, lasting fourteen to sixteen months. "A female King penguin may
produce a chick twice in every 3 breeding seasons." (Sparks and Soper, 1987) The Fairy
penguin has the shortest breeding cycle in the species, about fifty days. When penguins
begin to mate, the courtship varies from species to species. Courtships begin with both
visual and auditory displays as mentioned above. In many of the species, the male
displays first to establish a nesting site and then attracts a suitable mate. However
during this display, the female makes the mate selection. Most penguin species are
monogamous meaning one female breeds with one male during a breeding season. However, if
a male penguin arrives late to his destination for breeding, this could be grounds' for
divorce. Most female Emperors and King penguins mate within twenty-four hours after
arriving at the rookery. If the male is late or does not show up during this time period,
the female will move on and find another mate. 
When penguins return to the rookery each breeding season, most tend to be faithful and
return to the same place. The males tend to arrive first to set up the nesting site prior
to the females' arrival. "Most species of penguins nest on the surface, in open habitats,
and many have only a rudimentary nest consisting of a hollow amongst boulders, tussocks,
or other vegetation lined with a few stones or pieces of grass." (Williams, 1995) The
Emperor and King penguins do not build a nest for their young. The reason for this is
that when one of these species lays an egg, they stand upright while incubating a single
egg. The eggs rest on the top their feet under a loose fold of skin. This loose fold of
skin, which is used for incubating the egg, is called a broodpatch. The broodpatch
contains numerous blood vessels that when blood is transferred to this area, heat is
transferred to incubate the egg. After a female penguin lays her egg, she returns to the
ocean to feed and the male incubates the egg on his feet for as long as sixty days or
until the egg hatches and a baby chick emerges. Usually in most cases, the female Emperor
penguin returns from feeding in the ocean just about the same time the egg is ready to
hatch. If she does not return in time and the egg hatches, the male penguin feeds the
baby chick with a milky fluid from his throat. The baby chick is covered with a downy
coat and is kept under the broodpatch until it is 6 to 10 days old. After this period of
time, the baby chick begins to regulate its own body temperature. Often chicks herd
together in tight groups to keep warm from the freezing arctic air. The eggs of penguins
tend to vary from species to species in regards to size, shape and weight. The colors of
penguin eggs tend to be white, bluish or greenish. A chick depends on its parents for
survival between hatching and obtaining its waterproof feathers. Once a chick has lost
its down feathers and they have been replaced with waterproof feathers, the chick is able
to enter the ocean and become somewhat independent of its parents.
Penguins are very efficient swimmers and; although they are used to swimming at speeds of
5 mph, some of the species can travel up to speeds of 8.9 mph, such as the Emperor
penguin. When penguins are traveling through the water quickly, they will leap out of the
water every few feet. This type of action is called "porposing" due to the same behavior
that resemble a porpoise. This action serves 2 purposes for a penguin; one being that a
penguin needs to come up for air, and the other is to decrease their chances from being
eaten by a predator. 
When penguins are out at sea feeding, their diet is made up of krill, squid and fish.
Smaller species of penguins feed on krill and squid whereas larger species tend to feed
on squid and fish. Penguins rely on their eyesight when they are out hunting for food.
"It is not known how penguins locate their prey in the darkness, at night, or at great
depths, but some scientists hypothesize that penguins are helped by the fact that many
ocean squid, crustaceans, and fishes are bioluminescent (they produce light)." (del Hoyo,
et al., 1992) When penguins are hunting for food, they catch their prey as they are
swimming and swallow their food whole. Feeding areas vary for each species of penguins.
When hunting for food they may be successful within a 9-mile radius, or they have been
known to travel as far as five hundred and fifty nine miles to find food. 
As penguins are swimming in the ocean waters, they have several predators including but
not limited to; leopard seals, fur seals, sea lions, sharks or killer whales. On land,
penguins have to worry about other predators such as foxes, snakes, and others that are
not native to the lands but that have been transplanted by human migration. Examples of
some of these non-native predators are; feral dogs, cats and stoats, which is a member of
the weasel family. 
Since penguins are the most aquatic of birds, El Nino has taken its toll on the existence
of these fascinating creatures. This natural phenomenon, which changes wind and ocean
current patterns, warms the surface temperatures and reduces the upwelling of
nutrient-rich water. Marine animal food supply is directly affected and compromised by
the above mentioned factors because of the decrease of nutrients within the water.
Plankton, krill and small fish cannot thrive under these changes. "To put it simply, the
water's too warm and there's not enough food." (Boresma). Water temperatures in the
equatorial Pacific Ocean have been measured from eighty-three to eighty-four degrees
Fahrenheit; which is much warmer than normal and, because of this, fish found in these
waters cannot survive, they die or migrate. Penguins found in this region are
undernourished and/or emaciated, with an absence of young or baby penguins. 
Because of the shortage of food caused by El Nino, researchers have found that adults do
not attempt to lay eggs. When eggs are laid however, many nests are left abandoned
because the birds do not have enough food to remain in the area. "When upwelling is
absent, the birds forage singly or in pairs, they do not molt, and the few that initiate
breeding rapidly lose weight and eventually fail." (Williams, 1995) This contributes to
the increasingly low penguin population and is directly caused by El Nino. 
El Nino is a naturally occurring phenomena which cannot be controlled; however, the
actions of humans and their subsequent effects on the population of penguins can be
controlled. The biggest threat to marine species is the human impact. The killing of
penguins dates back as early as the 1800s and was a major factor in the mortality rate of
penguins. Penguins were hunted and killed so that the fat from their fat layers
containing oil could be harvested and used for lighting, tanning of leather and fuel.
This was an important source of obtaining these necessities in the 1800s and early 1900s.

Penguins were hunted and killed by early explorers for use as daily provisions; their
carcasses were dried and salted for consumption. They were also a source of fresh daily
meat. Fortunately for the penguins, their eggs were a more important food supply than
themselves. Sailors on long voyages consumed large quantities of eggs in vast numbers as
these eggs contained an immense amount of protein. "Sometimes more than 300,000 eggs were
taken at an annual harvest from one African Island." (Sparks and Soper, 1987). The
collection of penguin eggs is illegal and has been since 1969; however, believe it or
not, it still continues to occur even today. The illegal killing of penguins also still
occurs today as their meat is used for human consumption, as well as fishing bait in
Chile and Peru. 
In addition to penguins being hunted currently and in the past for use as a food source,
they have great commercial value as nitrogen-rich fertilizer. The use of penguins as a
fertilizer dates back as far as 500 B.C. The Incas used penguin and seabird guano to
improve their crops. However, the Incas were careful to not over use their supply by
limiting its use based on the rate that the penguins reproduced themselves. Today
penguins are still a source for commercial nitrogen-rich fertilizer; however, today those
harvesting it are not as thoughtful. Overexploitation for this use is seriously
threatening some species and their population.
The dumping of garbage and trash in the ocean affects all kinds of marine life including
the penguins. Penguins have been found tangled in debris, which causes death or serious
injury. In addition to trash dumping, oil dumping also poses a great threat to the
penguin population. When their feathers are tainted with oil, weatherproofing is reduced
and their insulation fails. They are then at great risk of hypothermia. In addition, when
trying to preen their feathers; they can ingest oil, which poisons them and causes their
internal organs to fail. 
Although oil spill disasters such as the Exxon Valdez spill off the coast of Alaska had a
devastating affect on the population, oil also enters into the waters via ship sludge and
residue. Facilities are available for ships too properly dispose of their sludge and
residue; however, unfortunately these facilities may not be utilized as it may be cost
prohibitive and therefore, illegal dumping is then opted. The dumping of oil waste is
permitted; however, the rate must be 15 parts of oil to a million parts of water. This
formula is not followed as the risk of being caught is so small compared to the cost of
the mixing of the formula. Oil also enters into the marine habitat through land run-off.
"The U.S. Academy of Sciences estimated in 1990 that 37% of oil pollution of the world's
marine environment enters the sea from the land. Other sources estimate that 45% comes
from shipping (12.5% from tanker accidents); 9% from the atmosphere, 7.7% from natural
sources and 1.5% from offshore oil exploration and production." (Environmental News
Network).
In conclusion, the responsibility for the future existence of the penguin population lies
mainly with the human race. Our ability to cause changes in climate snowballs thus
creating changes in global and local patterns of ocean productivity. We have altered, and
continue to alter, the natural environment and habitat of these wonderful creatures. 
Historically, the direct exploitation of penguins by humans created a huge risk to their
survival. Currently, as humans create more creative uses for penguins and their skins, we
pose a greater risk of impacting their existence. The ability to control and monitor the
use of these animals is complex and difficult. The need for protecting marine habitats
for all kinds of marine life has become serious. We have the ability to cause the
extinction of far too many creatures. As of December 4, 1998, a number of conservation
groups gathered and formulated a report on the penguin population. They believe that 9
penguin species should have been endangered or were close to being endangered, and 2 more
species close to being threatened. Previously, only 5 of the total seventeen penguin
species were considered threatened. Based on the above-referenced conservation groups'
statistics, more than 50% of penguin species may be close to endangered. If we do not
take an active stand on the protection of these amazing birds, we stand a chance of
creating yet another "dinosaur," available to our children only through history and
science books.